How to Crack a Wi-Fi Network's WEP Password with BackTrack

You already know that if you want to lock down your Wi-Fi network, you should opt for WPA encryption because WEP is easy to crack. But did you know how easy? Take a look.

Originally published last year, we wanted to revisit Gina's awesome guide to cracking Wi-Fi WEP passwords for Evil Week. Alternatively, if you're not in a reading mood, check out the video version.

Today we're going to run down, step-by-step, how to crack a Wi-Fi network with WEP security turned on. But first, a word: Knowledge is power, but power doesn't mean you should be a jerk, or do anything illegal. Knowing how to pick a lock doesn't make you a thief. Consider this post educational, or a proof-of-concept intellectual exercise.

Dozens of tutorials on how to crack WEP are already all over the internet using this method. Seriously—Google it. This ain't what you'd call "news." But what is surprising is that someone like me, with minimal networking experience, can get this done with free software and a cheap Wi-Fi adapter. Here's how it goes.

What You'll Need

Unless you're a computer security and networking ninja, chances are you don't have all the tools on hand to get this job done. Here's what you'll need:

• A compatible wireless adapter—This is the biggest requirement. You'll need a wireless adapter that's capable of packet injection, and chances are the one in your computer is not. After consulting with my friendly neighborhood security expert, I purchased an Alfa AWUS050NH USB adapter, pictured here, and it set me back about $50 on Amazon. Update: Don't do what I did. Get the Alfa AWUS036H, not the US050NH, instead. The guy in this video below is using a $12 model he bought on Ebay (and is even selling his router of choice). There are plenty of resources on getting aircrack-compatible adapters out there.
• A BackTrack 3 Live CD. We already took you on a full screenshot tour of how to install and use BackTrack 3, the Linux Live CD that lets you do all sorts of security testing and tasks. Download yourself a copy of the CD and burn it, or load it up in VMware to get started. (I tried the BackTrack 4 pre-release, and it didn't work as well as BT3. Do yourself a favor and stick with BackTrack 3 for now.)
• A nearby WEP-enabled Wi-Fi network. The signal should be strong and ideally people are using it, connecting and disconnecting their devices from it. The more use it gets while you collect the data you need to run your crack, the better your chances of success.
• Patience with the command line. This is an ten-step process that requires typing in long, arcane commands and waiting around for your Wi-Fi card to collect data in order to crack the password. Like the doctor said to the short person, be a little patient.

Crack That WEP

To crack WEP, you'll need to launch Konsole, BackTrack's built-in command line. It's right there on the taskbar in the lower left corner, second button to the right. Now, the commands.

First run the following to get a list of your network interfaces:

airmon-ng

The only one I've got there is labeled ra0. Yours may be different; take note of the label and write it down. From here on in, substitute it in everywhere a command includes (interface).

Now, run the following four commands. See the output that I got for them in the screenshot below.


airmon-ng stop (interface)
ifconfig (interface) down
macchanger --mac 00:11:22:33:44:55 (interface)
airmon-ng start (interface)

If you don't get the same results from these commands as pictured here, most likely your network adapter won't work with this particular crack. If you do, you've successfully "faked" a new MAC address on your network interface, 00:11:22:33:44:55.

Now it's time to pick your network. Run:

airodump-ng (interface)

To see a list of wireless networks around you. When you see the one you want, hit Ctrl+C to stop the list. Highlight the row pertaining to the network of interest, and take note of two things: its BSSID and its channel (in the column labeled CH), as pictured below. Obviously the network you want to crack should have WEP encryption (in the ENC) column, not WPA or anything else.

Like I said, hit Ctrl+C to stop this listing. (I had to do this once or twice to find the network I was looking for.) Once you've got it, highlight the BSSID and copy it to your clipboard for reuse in the upcoming commands.

Now we're going to watch what's going on with that network you chose and capture that information to a file. Run:

airodump-ng -c (channel) -w (file name) --bssid (bssid) (interface)

Where (channel) is your network's channel, and (bssid) is the BSSID you just copied to clipboard. You can use the Shift+Insert key combination to paste it into the command. Enter anything descriptive for (file name). I chose "yoyo," which is the network's name I'm cracking.

You'll get output like what's in the window in the background pictured below. Leave that one be. Open a new Konsole window in the foreground, and enter this command:

aireplay-ng -1 0 -a (bssid) -h 00:11:22:33:44:55 -e (essid) (interface)

Here the ESSID is the access point's SSID name, which in my case is yoyo. What you want to get after this command is the reassuring "Association successful" message with that smiley face.

You're almost there. Now it's time for:

aireplay-ng -3 -b (bssid) -h 00:11:22:33:44:55 (interface)

Here we're creating router traffic to capture more throughput faster to speed up our crack. After a few minutes, that front window will start going crazy with read/write packets. (Also, I was unable to surf the web with the yoyo network on a separate computer while this was going on.) Here's the part where you might have to grab yourself a cup of coffee or take a walk. Basically you want to wait until enough data has been collected to run your crack. Watch the number in the "#Data" column—you want it to go above 10,000. (Pictured below it's only at 854.)

Depending on the power of your network (mine is inexplicably low at -32 in that screenshot, even though the yoyo AP was in the same room as my adapter), this process could take some time. Wait until that #Data goes over 10k, though—because the crack won't work if it doesn't. In fact, you may need more than 10k, though that seems to be a working threshold for many.

Once you've collected enough data, it's the moment of truth. Launch a third Konsole window and run the following to crack that data you've collected:

aircrack-ng -b (bssid) (file name-01.cap)

Here the filename should be whatever you entered above for (file name). You can browse to your Home directory to see it; it's the one with .cap as the extension.

If you didn't get enough data, aircrack will fail and tell you to try again with more. If it succeeds, it will look like this:

The WEP key appears next to "KEY FOUND." Drop the colons and enter it to log onto the network.

Problems Along the Way

With this article I set out to prove that cracking WEP is a relatively "easy" process for someone determined and willing to get the hardware and software going. I still think that's true, but unlike the guy in the video below, I had several difficulties along the way. In fact, you'll notice that the last screenshot up there doesn't look like the others—it's because it's not mine. Even though the AP which I was cracking was my own and in the same room as my Alfa, the power reading on the signal was always around -30, and so the data collection was very slow, and BackTrack would consistently crash before it was complete. After about half a dozen attempts (and trying BackTrack on both my Mac and PC, as a live CD and a virtual machine), I still haven't captured enough data for aircrack to decrypt the key.

So while this process is easy in theory, your mileage may vary depending on your hardware, proximity to the AP point, and the way the planets are aligned. Oh yeah, and if you're on deadline—Murphy's Law almost guarantees it won't work if you're on deadline.

---

To see the video version of these exact instructions, check out this dude's YouTube video.

Got any experience with the WEP cracking courtesy of BackTrack? What do you have to say about it? Give it up in the comments.

Gina Trapani, Lifehacker's founding editor, is tired of typing commands that start with "air." Her weekly feature, Smarterware, appears every Wednesday on Lifehacker. Subscribe to the Smarterware tag feed to get new installments in your newsreader.

Contact information for this author is not available.

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more about #wep

Crack a Wi-Fi Network's WEP Password with BackTrack, the Fancy Video Version

The Definitive Guide to Finding Free Wi-Fi

read more: #wifi, #wep, #stepbystep, #security, #homenetwork, #linux, #linuxlivecd, #livecd, #vmware, #clips, #howto, #screenshottour, #feature, #top, #smarterware, #downloads, #commandline, #evilweek

Question Tutorial 1

1. Briefly explain traditional role of quantity surveyor in commercial building projects

Answer:The quantity surveyor is a major contributor to the success of all types of project in all sectors of the economy including the industry infrastructure , healthcare , education , public buildings , retail and commerical construction , residential construction , and leisure projects.
The role of quantity surveyor including cost estimating , cost advice , cost planning , property development advice , advice on tendering procedures and contractual arrangement , prepare tender document , prepare contract documents , valuation of work in progress , financial control over contracts , final account in respect of the contract and etc

Future service of quantity surveyor

• Offering advice on property taxation
• Providing post-occupancy advise , facilities management services and life cycle costing advice
• Assisting clients in locating and accessing additional and alternative sources of funds
• Advising on the maintenance costs of specific buildings
• Life cycle cost analysis /planning
• Construction planning
• Arbitration/ Mediation
• Expert witness/ appraisal Insurance valuations
• Risk Management
• Project/construction management
• Value management
• Quanlity Management
• Facilities/asset management
• Premises audit (energy etc.)
• Due diligence reports
• Cost benefit analysis
• Information management
• ETC.
  

ROle of quantity surveyor ?

• Prepare tender documents:

-Doing taking-off , preparing bills of quantities and other tender documents ( form of tender , conditions of tender , preliminaries , preambles to all trades , specification etc) for tendering purposes.

-Manage the tender process - Organize the calling of tenders , clarify and evaluate tenders (for example examining tenders and priced bulls of quantities and reporting findings ) prepare tender report and involve in tender interview.

-Negotiating rates with contractors on negotiated contracts and dealing with cost reimbursement contracts , design and build , management and other form of contracts.

• Prepare contract documents:

-Prepare contract documents ( contents are same as tender documents but there are additional documents of correspondence and form of contract ) which will sign by the successful tenderer and the client ; distributed to all project parties ( successful contractor , client , quantity surveyor , architect , c&s engineer and M&E engineer).

• Valuation of work in progress

-Interim valuation of works in progress on site for purposes of interim payments.

-Valuing work in progress and making recommendations as to payments to be made to the contractor , including advising on the financial effect of variations.

• Financial control over contracts

-Preparing financial statement to monitor project cost during the construction stage.

-Performing variation control and assessment of contractor's claims during construction stage.

• Final account in respect of the contract

-Preparing final account on completion of the contract works

-The quantity surveyor's duty is essentially one of cost control. They measure and value work in progress , determine the value of variations ordered by the architect or engineer and ensure that a fair and equitable settlement of the cost of the project is reached in accordance with the contract conditions . In conjunction with the architect and other consultants , the quantity surveyor will ensure that the dinancal provisions of the contract are properly interpreted and applied .

• However , the role of quantity surveyor is distinct between QS working in:

-Consulatant Firms

-COntractor firms

-Developer firms

-Architect firms

• Generally , the role of quantity surveyor working in contravtor firm including :

-A contractor's QS is responsible for the performance of operations that mirror those of the owner;s QS . For ecample the measurement and pricing of construction work.

-The role of a contractor's QS will extend further than the day to day running of building projects and will cover such other areas as sub-contract formation , forecasting of costs and values of the project , cash flow forecasts and the collation of the operation and maintenance manuals of the project ( O&M manuals ).

Role of Quantity Surveying

• Cost estimating

-Preparation of preliminary cost estimate and measurement of constructon works prior to tender in the very early stages of the formulation of a building project.

• Cost advice

-Giving cost advice and information during all stages of the development of a project to assure full awareness of financial implications of the project.

-Giving advice on alternative materials and components and types of construction and the financial aspects of contracts and assiting with feasibility studies.

• Cost Planning

-Cost planning and value analysis during the design stage of a project to ensure that client obtains value for money where the costs are distributed in most realistic way throughtout the various sections or elements of the building not olny with regard to the capital cost but also in respect of the running and maintenance cost of a project and that the tender figure is kept within the client's budget.

-Cost planning enables decisions on various design alternatives to be made with actual costs being constantly monitored against original budgets.

• Property development advice

-A building should meet the functional dimensional and technological requirement for which it was designed , should be aesthetically pleasing and meet the cost limits of the client's budget.

-A quantity surveyor is able to provide pre-design feasibility studies involving technical and/or economic investigations thereby enabling a client to decide whether , and in what form , to proceed.

• Advice on tendering procedures and contractual arrangement

-The choice of an appropriate form of contract for any given project will depend on the nature of the project , the circumstances under which the work is to be carried out and the particular needs of the client.

-Quantity Surveyor , in collaboration with architects are able to advise the client on the most advantages procurement method available , including : contracts incorporating bulls of quantity , provisional bills of quantities and schedules of rates.

Who is quantity surveyor ?

• A quantity surveyor (QS) is a professional working within the construction industry .
• Generally , the role of the QS is to manage and control contracts and costs within construction projects.
• The quantity surveyor is a major contributor to the success of all types of projects in all sectors of the economy including industry , infrastructure , healthcare , education , public buildings , retail and commercial construction , residential construction , and leisure projects

History of Quantity Suerveying

Measurement Lexture 1

• The quantity surveyor emerged in England at the begining og the nineteenth century , although the firm of Henry Cooper and Sons of Reading was established as early as 1785.
• Prior to the first recorded usage of the term "quantity surveyor" in 1859 , the term "measurer" , "custom surveyor " or "surveyor " were used .
• In those early days , the quantity surveyor acted for the master tradesmen , measuring the work after completion and frequently submitting partisan Final Accounts to the building owner .

objective of measurement

• This unit aims to expose students to the function and importance of tender documenttation , methods of doing the taking-off and measurement of substructure works : all in accordance with the Standard Method of Measurement of Building Works (SMM2)

The important of learning ENglish

Introduction:
Learning to speak English well may be the best thing you can do to improve your life. That 's right . Do you think it would be fun to have access to information that other people can't get ? Talk and write letters to interesting people that others can't communicate with ? Impress people around you whenever you opened your mounth ? Make big jumps in your career , leabing other miles behind ?

Get access to knowlegde
what are you interested in ? Is it science ? Music ? COmputers ? Health ? Business ? Sports ? Today's media - such as the Internet , televisyen , and the press- give you almost unlimited access to knowledge about your favorite subject . THere's olny one problem . Most of this knowlegge is in English. THere are over billion pages on the Web are using English . Book- on any subject , from all over the world . Read book by British or American authors , and books translatated from other languages . Whatever you're interested in , you can read about it in English ! The press like the magazines and newspapers can be bought to every part of the world with english language . English is the key to the world of science . In 1997 , 95 percent of the article in the Science Citation Index were written in English .

Communicate with people
We like to call English ' the language of communication ' .Why ? Because it seems all the people in the world have agreed to use English to talk to each other . About 1,500,000,000 people in the world speak English . Another 1,000,000,000 are learning it . 75 % of the world's letters and postcards are written in ENglish . Almost all international conferences and competitions are conducted in English . For example , the Olympic games and the Miss World contest. If you know english , you can travel more easily . Communicat with people wherever you go . This because english is spoken over more than 100 countries , you may need english when have a conversation with foregin person or asking for help . Who knows , maybe English will save your life someday?

Push you career forward
If you want have a good job in business , technology or science , get out of that armchair and start learning english right now ! (if you already have a good job , start learning english before lose it . Knowing english will let you put excellent english on your CV . Get your dream job and earn more money . Beside that , you will gain techincal knowledge . THis because english of technology , especiallly high technology like computer science , genetics and medicine . If you re going to read about technology , you will probably have to do it in English .You can learn computet science and ready it techinical article without difficulty . Or write your own articles .Other than that , if you can spoke fluently english , you can be a world-class businessman . Because international business is done in english . And all business today is international . So if you to play , you have to know english - to contract other business people , go to conferences , read international business newpaper and magazine . etc.You also can be a better scientist if you know english . You can contact scientists from other countries , go to international conferences , visit academic centers abraod. Leant about new scientific discoveries by reading papers , books , and magazines.Nowaday most of the computer application are in english , so you will understand them better - and become a better employee.

Conclusion:
As a conclusion , learning english will let us communicate with foreign person , get access ot unlimited knowledge , and provide you get a better carrer . Since learning english give us lot of benefit why not we start learning english right now ,before it was too late.

Thank you.

Appendix 1

(A) Flowchart
- A Flowchart is a pictorial representation of the logical steps it takes to solves a problem . Almost every program involves the steps of input , processing , & output . When you create a flowchart , you draw geometric shapes around the individual statements and connect them with arrows .

SYmbol used in flowcharting

-Arithmetic operation statements are examples of processing .
-TO show the correct sequence of these statements , use flowlines to connect the steps
-To be complete , a flowchart should include a terminal (start/stop) symbol at each end .
-Use connector when a flowchart cannot physically fit on one page . The letters or numbers on the connectors match up so you can determine the next step in the flowchart .
-The off-page connector can be used when the flowchart is at the bottom of a page and must be continued on a new page . As with the on-page connector , the off-page connector has a symbol in it ( a letter or number ) and connect with another connector on a different page with the same symbol .

B. Pseudocode
-Pseudocode is an English-like representation of the same thing .
-Statements are written in simple English
-Each instruction is written on a separate line.
-Keywords and indention are used to signify particular control structures .
-Each set of instruction is written from top to bottom , with olny one entry and one exit .
-Groups of statements may be formed into modules , and that group given a name .

Exercise 1.3
-By using structure chart , pseudocode and flowchart , design the solution for a program that reads three (3) numbers from user , calculates their total and average , and displays the calculated total and average on the screen .

Flowchart for calculattes the sum of two numbers

1. Use terminal symbols to indicate the start of a flowchart . Write start , begin , etc in the symbol
2.Use input/output symbols for reading and displaying of data values .
3.Use processing symbol for calculations
4.Use terminal symbol to indicate the end of flowchart .Write end , stop , etc in the symbol .




-Prompt and read the 1st number from user .
-Prompt and read 2nd number from user
-Calculate the sum
-Display the sum


#include

int main (void)
{
int number 1 , number 2, sum;

printf ("Enter 1st number > ") ;
scanf ( "%d", &number1);

printf ("Enter 2nd number > " ) ;
scanf ("%d" , &number2);

sum = number1 + numbers2;

printf ("Result = %d\n",sum);

return 0;

Pseudocode for calculate the sum of two numbers

Start the pseudocode witht he words start , begin etc
Use english words to describe the algorithms in steps
Numbering are optional
ENd of the pseudocode with the words end , stop , etc

Start
1.Prompt and read number 1
2.Prompt and read number 2
3.sum = number1 + number2
4.display sum
End

Review : Steps for program development include :

1. Understand the problem
2.Develop a solution
a) Design the program : structure chart
b)Design the algorithms : flowchart or pseudocode
3. Write the program
4. Test the program

Example 1.2
-Problem : calculate the sum of two numbers
a)Design the solution using a structure chart
b)Normally , each module in the structure chart would have its own pseudocode . However , as this is your first attempt and this is a pretty easy problem , write the pseudocode to solve this entire problem .
C) Draw the flowchart to represent the program logic for this problem .
-HInt : the general algorithm for a programming problem is normally :
1. Get the data
2. Perform the computations
3. Display the result

Sum two number consist of three , that is get user input , calculate sum , and display sum

Flowchart for calcbathrooms module

Start of calcBathrooms then read linoleum price and number of bathrooms from user . THe values are represented as linoPrice and numBath.Then set the values of bathArea and bathProc to 0 , whie there are still any bathrooms need to be process .Read the length and width of bathroom . Accumulate the total area of bathrooms . One more bathroom has been processed . So add 1 to the counter bathProc .Calculate cost of linoleum based on the total bathrooms area and linoleum price . End of calcBathrooms module

Pseudocode for calcBathRooms module

-For each module , use pdesudocode ( see Firgure 1.4 ) or a flowchart ( see Figure 1.5 ) to specify the steps to be followed ( algorithm ) in order to accomplish the task


Algorithm Calculation Bathrooms
1 prompt user and read linoleum price
2 Prompt user and read number of bathrooms
3 set total bath area and baths processed to zero
4 While (baths processed < number of bathrooms )
1 prompt user and read linoleum price
2 prompt user and read number of bathrooms
3 set total bath area and baths processed to zero
4 while ( baths processed < number of bathrooms )
1 Prompt user and read bath length and width
2 total bath area =
3 total bath area + bath length * bath width
4 add 1 to baths processed
5 bath cost = total bath area * linoleum price
6 return bath cost
end Algorithm Calculate BathRooms

Programming concepts and design 1

Flooring cost consist of get user info , calculate and print report , and the calculate is separate to calcilate linoleum , calc carpeting , whereas calc linoleum consist of calc kitchen and calc bath rooms ,,alc carpenting consist of calc bedrooms and calc living areas , calc living areas consist of calc family room and calc dine living

Example 1.1

-You would like to install new floor covering in your home and would like to calculate the cost that would be involved . Your plan is as follows :

1.Olny the living space will be carpeted . The garage and closets will not be considered .
2.The kitchen and bathrooms will be covered with linoleum . THe rest of the house is to be carpeted .

-You need a computer program to compute the flooring cost . How can you approach this problem ? "Divide and Conquer : !
a)Break down the tasks into a few big subtasks
b)Decompose each big subtask into smaller subtasks.
c)Further break down each smaller subtask into even smaller subtasks
d)Eventually the subtasks become so small that they are trivial to implement in C language .

-A.k.a stepwise refinement or top-down design
-Use a structure chart to represent or top-down design
-Use a structure chart to represent the division of task into subtasks , smaller subtasks and even smaller subtasks ( see Figure 1.3 ).

Program development

An old programming proverb : "Resist the temptation to code ".

-A multi-steps process that requires you to :
1. undestand the problem
2.Develop a solution
3.Write the program
4.Test the program

-To develop the soulution , the following tools are normally used :
1.Structure chart
2.Pseudocode or flowcharts

-Structure chart
1.A hierarchy chart that shows the functional flow through the program.
2.Shows how the program is broken into logical steps . Each step will be a separate module

-Pseudocode:
1.A condensed from of ENglish to convey program logic .
2.Contains the detailed steps to accomplish the task
3.The detailed algorithm in the pseudocode is precise , such that the programmer can convert the pseudocode into a computer program
4.Algorithm , the logical steps nevessary to solve a problem in a computer .

-Flowchart:
A program design tool in which standard graphical symbols ( refer to Appendix 1 ) are used to represent the logical flow of data through a function

Exercise 1.2

-Create a new program to print the following output :

welcome , welcome all of you
Glad you are with us
SHake hands , no need to be blue
Welcome to you !

Exericise 1.1

1. Start Microsoft Visual C++ 6.0 as instructed by your instructor . Follow the instruction to create a new source program named " Hello.c".

2.Type in the following source code :

INcluding the necessaru library file . The printf() function needs Every C program must have main () function .
The printf () function prints the text on the screen.

#include

int main (void)
{
printf ("Hello World!\n");
return 0;
}

Statements/commands are written within the body of function , as indicated by a pair of braces , the { and } symbols.

3. Compile the program . IF there are errors , verify and correct them . Compile the program again , until there is no error .

4.Build and execute the program . FInish your task by closing the project workspace .

Introduction to C

• C is a general-purpose , structured programming language .
• Can be used for sustems programming and application programming .
• C has a large number of operators and library functions and allows the user to extend on the library .
• C program are portable . They can be processed on many different computers with no or little alterations
• Developed in 1970s by Dennis Ritchie at Bell telephone Lab .Inc
• Originated from BCPL ( Basic Combined Programming Language ).
• ANSI ( American National Standard Institute ) developed a standardized definition of C language that all commerical C compilers and interpreters adhere to this standard
  

Compiling and running a program

SOurce Program -> COmpiler -Program error listing & object program (data ) -> results

Computer language

-COmputer understand olny machine language , which consists of 0s and 1s .
-The evolution of computer languages is as follows :

First Generation : MACHINE LANGUAGE
-Uses binary codes (0s and 1s).
-The olny language that computers can understand . No translation required
-Platform-dependent and very hard to program
-
Second generation : Symbolic language / Assembly Language
-Uses symbolic instruction codes and mnemonics ( meaningful abbreviations )
-Source program has to be translated to machine language using an assembler
-PLatform-dependent but easier to program
-E.g. MASM 6.15 , Turbo Assembler , etc

Third Generation :High level Language /Procedural Language
-Uses ENglish-like instruction codes and mathematical operators
-Source program has to be translated to machine language using a compiler or interpreter .
-With a compiler ( see Figure 1.2 ) , the source program is converted into a machine language object program . If the compiler encounters any errors , it will be shown as a program error listing .When the users wants to run the program , the object program is loaded into the computer memory and the program instruction are executed .
-Platform-independent and very easy to program
-E.g C , Pascal , Cobol , ETC

interoduction to computer

A computer is a system made up of two major components
-hardware , the physical equipment
-software , the collection of programs ( instruction ) that tell the hardware how to perform tasks

Computer softwate is divided into two broad categories :
-system software , which manages the computer resources .
-Application software , which helps users solve their problems

System softwate consists of :
-Operating system
-System support software
-System development software

Application software is divided into :
-General-purpose software
-Application-specific software

pendidikan 2

Persetujuan kepimpinan parti Perikatan terhadap Penyata Razak 1956 dan rahman Talib 1960 melalui proses musyawarah telah secara langsung mengiktiraf penggunaan bahasa Melayu sebagai alat untuk penyatuan tanpa menjejaskan bahasa etnik-etnik lain . Terdapat pandangan yang menyatakan bahawa penggunaan bahasa Melayu sebagai bahasa kebangsaan juga mempunyai motif ekonomi yang tersirat . perkara ini tercacat dalam Laporan Jawatankuasa Barnes tahun 1951 , antara lain menegaskan untuk menggalakkan dan membolehkan etnik Melayu mendapat kedudukan dalam jabatan-jabatan tertentu . Manifestasi motif ekonomi dalam sistem pendidikan ini bersandarkan kepada kedudukan etnik Melayu yang jauh ketinggalan berbanding dengan etnik bukan Melayu . Kebimbangan etnik Melayu semakin meningkat dengan statistik kemasukan pelajar ke institusi pengajian tinggi . Sebagai contoh , 70 peratus daripada jumlah pelajar di Universiti Malaya pada tahun 1966-1967 terdiri daripada pelajar bukan Melayu . Manakala taburan bukan Melayu di Fakulti kejuruteraan ialah 98 peratus , sains 93 peratus dan perubatan 84 peratus . Di Universiti Teknologi Malaysia ( dulunya Kolej Tenik ) KUala Lumpur , 90 peratus pelajar ialah bukan Melayu .
Oleh itu , selepas , tradegi 13 Mei 1969 , parti UMNO yang menerajui Parti Perikatan telah menegaskan bahawa pendidikan perlu diseimbangakan bagi memperkasakan orang Melayu . Secara beransur-ansur , mulai julai 1969 , kerajaan telah melaksanakan penggunaan bahasa Melayu sebagai bahasa pengantar utama di semua sejolah bantuan kerajaan . Sebagai tindakan pengukuhan , kerajaan telah merumuskan dasar kuota dan biasiswa bagi kemasukan ke unicersiti . Kerajaan juga telah mengambil langkah memperbanyak penubuhan insitusi pengajian tinggi ini , kemasukan pelajar Melayu ke universiti telah meningkat daripada 20 peratus pada tahun 1960-1964 menjadi 65 peratus pada tahun 1975 ( Milne dan Mauzy , 1986 )

Pada masa yang sama , golongan bukan Bumiputera ( kususnya masyarakat Cina merasakan satu keperluan untuk melindungi warisan nenek moyang dengan menggunakan wadah pendidikan .. Oleh yang demikian , masyarakat Cina masih mempertahan sekolah jenis kebangsaan Cina adalah selaras dengan apa yang ditetapkan oleh Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia . Hal ini penting untuk memastikan perpaduan negara dan pembinaan bangsa Malaysia dapat dicapai .

Pendidikan

Sehingga Penyata Razak 1956 , tiada terdapat satu sistem pendidikan nasional di Tanah melayu . Apa yang wujud ialah empat aliran pendidikan yang berlainan , iaitu aliran english ,melayu , cina and india . Setiap Kumpulan etnik mempunyai adunan dan acuan pendidikan yang berbeza . Semasa zaman penjajahan , sistem pendidikan di persekutuan Tanah Melayu boleh dibahagikan kepada tiga peringkat . Pertama , pendidikan British rendah dan menengah yang dihadiri oleh anak-anak kalangan bangsawan Melayu dan hartawan Cina dan India . Kedua , sekolah Melayu peringkat rendah yang dibantu oleh British dengan matlamat untuk menjadikan mereka sebagai petani yang lebih baik sedikit daripada ibu bapa mereka . Pihak British juga membenarkan kewujudan sejolah agama dan mengaji Quran . Pada peringkat ini tiada sejolah menengah Melayu . Ketiga , sekolah vernakular Cina dan India . Sekolah Cina dibiayai oleh masyarakat Cina sendiri ( milne dan Mauzy 1986 ).Selain Perbezaan dalam aliran pendidikan , kerencaman sistem pendidikan juga dapat dilihat daripada sudut kurikulum , sukatan mata pelajaran serta orientasi matlamatnya . Bagi aliran pendidikan Cina and India , kurikulum ,sukatan mata pelajaran dan orientasinya berkiblatkan negara asal mereka

Walau Bagaimanapun , sistem Pendidikan negara era pascamerdeka telah berubah kepada satu corak baharu yang berorientasikan unsur-unsur tempatan . Sistem pendidikan kebangsaan telah dibentuk berasaskan keseragaman kurikulum , sukatan mata pelajaran dan orientasi . Pendidikan kebangsaan penting sebagai satu wadah bagi menyatukan kepelbagaian budaya , nilai dan norma masyarakat ke dalam satu acuan demi mencapai matlamat membentuk identiti kebangsaan Malaysia . Usaha ke arah ini sebenarnya telah dilakukan semenjak sebelum merdeka lagi khususnya melaui dua laporan iaitu Penyata Razak tahun 1956 dan Penyata Rahman Talib tahun 1960 . matlamat utama dasar pendidikan menurut kedua-dua penyata tersebut ialah untuk menyatukan kanak-kanak daripada berbilang etnik di bawah satu sistem pendidikan kebangsaan dengan menggunakan satu bahasa pengantar tunggal iaitu bahasa Melayu ( Wan Hashim , 1983 )

Lebih jauh daripada itu , dalam peruntukan Perlembagaan persekutuan bagi kemerdekaan pada tahun 1957 , bahasa Melayu telah dijadikan bahasa kebangasaan dengan bahasa inggeris masih lagi digunakan sebagai bahasa rasmi . Walau bagaimanapun , pucuk pimpimnan parti Perikatan telah mencapai kesepakatan pada tahun 1956 dan bersetuju dengan Akta Pendidikan 1957 atas prinsip:

1. Sekolah pelbagai aliran dibenarkan dan pengajaran dalam bahasa ibunda masing-masing dibenarkan .
2. Oleh sebab bahasa Melayu merupakan bahasa kebangsaan , make di sekolah-sekolah Cina dan Tamil wajib mengajar Bahasa Melayu Sebagai salah satu daripada mata pelajaran
3. Pendekatan dalam mata pelajaran sejarah , geografi dan buku-buku teks yang lain mestilah berteraskan Malaysia ; dan
4. Bukan lagi berteraskan negara China dan India ( John Lowe , 1960 )

Perlembagaan

Sebagaimana telah disebutkan di atas terdapat persekutuan berlapis , iaitu Persekutuan Tanah Melayu dan persekutuan Malaysia . Walau bagaimanapun , Perlembangaan Persekutuan Malaysia ialah penerusan daripada Perlembagaan Persekutuan Tanah Melayu walaupun terdapat beberapa penambahan dan pengubahansuaian . Perlembagaan Persekutuan Malaysia merupakan undang-undang tertinggi yang menjadi sumber kepada segala perundangan lain yang wujud di negara kita.

Perlembagaan merupakan panduan asas kepada pelaksanaan sistem politik di negara kita. Perlembagaan tokoh Melayu merupakan panduan asas yang berlandaskan suatu kontrak sosial yang persetujuan antara kaum di negara ini . Dari segi sejarah , terdapat dua peringkat kontrak sosial di Alam Melayu . Pertama , berlaku pada zaman pluraliti iaitu janji taat setia dan saling menghormati antara rakyat dan raja . Janji taat setia dan saling menghormati ini diistilahkan sebagai waad . Perkara ini berlaku antara pemerintah Demang lebar Daun mewakili rakyat dan Dang Sapurba mewakili raja atau pemerintah . Oleh itu , kita boleh memahami dengan mudah mengapa Orang Melayu sangat setia kepada pemerintah mereka daripada kalangan sultan ataupun raja .

Kontrak sosial kedua berlaku dalam konteks masyarakat pluralistik hasil daripada syarat yang dikenalkan oleh British untuk memberikan kemerdekaan kepada Tanah Melayu . Antara perkara penting yang sering dikaitakan dengan kontrak sosial ini ialah soal kerakyatan . Orang Melayu bersetuju Menerima Kehadiran Orang Bukan Melayu dengan persetujuan memberikan taraf kerakyatan sebagai satu hak istimewa kepada orang bukan Melayu .Pada masa yang sama , orang bukan melayu bersetuju ke atas peruntukan hak-hak istimewa orang Melayu . Setiap Kumpulan etnik mestilah mempunyai wakil mereka dalam bentuk parti politik dan kesemua mereka mestilah mencapai persetujuan untuk hidup bersama-sama secara aman dan damai dalam negara Malaysia . Sehubungan dengan ini , Pada tahun 1949 telah terbentuk apa dinamakan sebagai Jawatankuasa Hubungan Antara Kaum ( communities Liason Commitee -CLC) . CLC tersebut merupakan usaha bersama antara Tan Cheng Lock dan Data ONN bin Jaafar , dengan sokongan pemerintah kolonial , sebagai tanda awal ke arah menyelesaikan isu-isu antara etnik di Tanah Mealyu . Oleh itu , persetujuan ini kemudiannya menjadi acuan atau model kepada penggabungan parti politik antara kaum seterusnya sama ada mewakili pemertintah mahupun pembangkang . Jadi , secara alamiahnya kelangsungan parti politik di Malaysia ilah parti-parti politik tidak mampu hidup secara individu.

masyarakat pluralistik selepas merdeka

Dalamt tempoh 1957-1959 , politik Malaysia telah melalui perjalanan berliku-liku . Terdapat beberapa pergolakan dalaman anggota parti Perikatan . MCa menghadapi kemelut kepimpinan apabila terdapat golongan yang tidak puas hati terhadap kepimpinan Tan Cheng Lock sehingga akhirnya memaksa beliau digantikan oleh DR. Lim Chong Eu . Dr. Lim memberikan tekanan kepada parti Perikatan untuk memberi kerusi yang lebih kepada MCA dalam pilihan raya umum 1959 . Krisis MCA yang berterusan membawa kepada perpecahan dalaman dan akhirnya Dr. Lim Chong Eu meletak jawatan . Parti MIC juga tidak terlepas daripada menghadapi kemelut dalaman apabila terdapat segelintir pihak yang menunjukkan sikap tidak puas hati terhadap Parti Perikatan . Namum demikian , melalui proses perundingan dalam kalangan pemimpin parti yang terlibat , segala kemelut dapat diatasi dengan cara yang baik

Selepas era 1960-an , politik Malaysia terus berkembang secara dinamik . kerjasama parti-parti politik dalam pakatan parti pemerintah telah berkembang denagan peningkatan keahliannya . Hal ini terbukti melalui penubuhan Barisan Nasional pada tahun 1974 . Rekod Barisan Nasional yang terus kekal memerintah sehingga kini sebahagiannya adalah kerana wujudnya kerjasama antara parti komponennya . Sehingga kini , segala usaha membina ikatan kerjasama dan merancang serta melaksana program pembangunan negara secara berterusan telah berjaya mendapat sokongan rakyat setiap kali pilihan raya umum diadakan.

Dasar-dasar kerajaan dalam emnguruskan pelbagai perkara yang berkaitan dengan perhubungan etnik melalui formula tolak ansur telah berjaya mengekang pihak tertentu seperti parti pembangkang yang cuba memecahbelahkannya . Justeru , strucktur hubungan etnik di Malaysia kini dipengaruhi oleh kumpulan etnik yang memiliki batas etnik yang nipis . Bentuk perhubungan mereka berasaskan perkiraan bukan etnik . Secara rasional , hubungan mereka lebih bersifat utilitarian dan mengikat mereka dalam jaringan silang budaya dan merentas etnik masing-masing . (Mansor Mohb Noor ) 2005.